In this episode, Rabbi Reinman discusses the rise of Rome as the dominant power in the Imperial Quadrant.

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Chapter Forty-two: The Fourth Kingdom

While the Greek kingdoms were battling each other, Rome was looming larger and larger in the west. Rome first appeared on the stage of world history in the sixth century before the common era. It began as a small city-state spread across seven hills on the banks of the Tiber River on the Mediterranean coast of central Italy. The powerful and sophisticated Etruscan kingdom stood to the north in modern-day Tuscany. The Greek colonies of Magna Graecia (Greater Greece) straddled southern Italy and the island of Sicily.

In its early history, Rome was governed by a dynasty of Etruscan kings, but the people were not Etruscan. At the end of the sixth century, the Romans expelled their Etruscan king and established a republic ruled by the aristocratic Senate and the democratic Assemblies. Fifteen years later, feeling newly invigorated and powerful, they went to war with the Latin tribes and defeated them. Rome emerged as the dominant power of the Latin League.

 In 390 b.c.e., the Latins revolted. Rome spent the next half century crushing one Latin tribe after the other. In 338 b.c.e., they completed their suppression of the rebellion. The Romans now turned their attention to the Greek colonies in the south of the peninsula. In 272 b.c.e., they captured Tarentum, and the entire peninsula was in their hands. Except for the island of Sicily. Eastern Sicily was essentially the Greek colony of Syracuse. Western Sicily belonged to Carthage, a city in North Africa that had a vast maritime empire in the western Mediterranean basin, with outposts in present-day France, Spain and the African coast.

Carthage had a powerful navy. Rome had a powerful army. Both sought to dominate the western Mediterranean. War was inevitable. In 264 b.c.e., the First Punic (Phoenician) War broke out. Rome built a navy to defend against the Carthaginian fleet and invaded Sicily. After years of fighting, Carthage was defeated. Sicily became part of Rome, and Carthage paid heavy reparations.

In 218 b.c.e., the Second Punic War broke out. Hannibal, the famous Carthaginian general, took an army with war elephants through Spain. He crossed the Alps, invaded Italy from the north and rampaged through the country for fourteen years. Meanwhile, in 204 b.c.e., the Romans invaded Carthage, and Hannibal was recalled to defend the homeland. In 202 b.c.e., the Romans general Scipio Africanus Major defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama. In the ensuing peace treaty, Rome stripped away all Carthage’s colonial territories and limited its military.

Rome emerged from the Punic Wars as the fastest rising power in the Imperial Quadrant. Even as Antiochus and Ptolemy fought over Judea, Rome turned its eyes eastward to the vast world of the Greeks. In 200 b.c.e., Rome invaded Macedonia. Four years later, the war was over. Rome forced the Macedonian king to give up his fleet and pay huge reparations. The Romans also declared the Greek states free of Macedonian rule and established a protectorate over them. Rome had arrived on the world stage.

Antiochus III finally realized that the Romans posed a grave threat to the Seleucid empire. In 192 b.c.e., he led a large Seleucid army into Greece to liberate the Greek states from Roman rule. His army, however, was no match for the Roman legions. In 188 b.c.e., the Romans overwhelmed the Seleucids at the Battle of Magnesia. Antiochus was forced to give up almost all his territory in Asia Minor and pay a staggering war indemnity.

In 168 b.c.e., the Romans crushed a Macedonian revolt. They broke up Macedonia into four republics that eventually became Roman provinces.

In that same year, Antiochus IV, the son of Antiochus III, invaded Egypt and defeated Ptolemy. His army stood at the gates of Alexandria. If he could capture the city, he would merge the Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms and have the wealth and the power to face Rome. The fall of the city seemed inevitable. In desperation, Ptolemy appealed to the Roman Senate to come to his aid and prevent the unification of Egypt and Syria.

The Senate sent a delegation to Alexandria headed by Gaius Popillius Laenas, a Roman general. They met Antiochus in a suburb of the city. Antiochus extended his hand in greeting, but Popillius just thrust a letter from the Senate into it. It was a decree ordering Antiochus to leave Egypt immediately. The king said he would discuss it with his advisors before responding.

Popillius took a stick and drew a circle in the sand around Antiochus. “Before you step out of this circle,” he said, “you must give me an answer to deliver to the Senate.” This was the famous “line in the sand.”

Antiochus was stunned. Rome had just won a major battle with Macedonia. If he stepped out of the circle without giving an answer, it meant war with Rome. The prospect was frightening. Antiochus capitulated. He took his armies and returned to Syria …

Read full chapter and earlier chapters at www.rabbireinman.com.